SpacerPlacer: Ancestral reconstruction of CRISPR arrays reveals the evolutionary dynamics of spacer deletions

Bacteria employ CRISPR-Cas systems for defense by integrating invader-derived sequences, termed spacers, into the CRISPR array, which constitutes an immunity memory. While spacer deletions occur randomly across the array, newly acquired spacers are predominantly integrated at the leader end. Consequently, spacer arrays can be used to derive the chronology of spacer insertions. Reconstruction of ancestral spacer acquisitions and deletions could help unravel the coevolution of phages and bacteria, the evolutionary dynamics in microbiomes, or to track pathogens. However, standard reconstruction methods produce misleading results by overlooking insertion order and joint deletions of spacers. Here, we present SpacerPlacer, a maximum likelihood-based ancestral reconstruction approach for CRISPR array evolution. We used SpacerPlacer to reconstruct and investigate ancestral deletion events of 4565 CRISPR arrays, revealing that spacer deletions occur 374 times more frequently than mutations and are regularly deleted jointly, with an average of 2.7 spacers. Surprisingly, we observed a decrease of the spacer deletion frequency towards both ends of the reconstructed arrays. While the resulting trailer-end conservation is commonly observed, a reduced deletion frequency is now also detectable at the variable leader end. Finally, our results point to the hypothesis that frequent loss of recently acquired spacers may provide a selective advantage. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.