Characterizing Physical Memory Fragmentation

External fragmentation of physical memory occurs when adjacent differently sized regions of allocated physical memory are freed at different times, causing free memory to be physically discontiguous. It can significantly degrade system performance and efficiency, such as reducing the ability to use huge pages, a critical optimization on modern large-memory system. For decades system developers have sought to avoid and mitigate fragmentation, but few prior studies quantify and characterize it in production settings. Moreover, prior work often artificially fragments physical memory to create more realistic performance evaluations, but their fragmentation methodologies are ad hoc and unvalidated. Out of 13 papers, we found 11 different methodologies, some of which were subsequently found inadequate. The importance of addressing fragmentation necessitates a validated and principled methodology. Our work fills these gaps in knowledge and methodology. We conduct a study of memory fragmentation in production by observing 248 machines in the Computer Sciences Department at University of Wisconsin - Madison for a week. We identify six key memory usage patterns, and find that Linux's file cache and page reclamation systems are major contributors to fragmentation because they often obliviously break up contiguous memory. Finally, we create andúril, a tool to artificially fragment memory during experimental research evaluations. While andúril ultimately fails as a scientific tool, we discuss its design ideas, merits, and failings in hope that they may inspire future research.